The Origins of Operative Masonry
With the resurgence of stone work in Europe in the 6th to 10th centuries, due to Christian religious fervor, thousands of impressive stone churches and cathedrals were built across Western Europe in a style known as Romanesque. The Italians builders with the Greeks, French, German and Flemings among them, joined into a Fraternity of Architects, procuring Papal Bulls that rendered them official and gave then certain privileges. They styled themselves as Freemasons referring to their freedom to move and work, and ranged from one Nation to another as they found Churches to be built. They were governed by a Surveyor with groups of ten member led by an officer called a Warden. This is the earliest evidence we have of a society of Freemasons. There is no proof that the traveling Freemasons of the middle ages made use of symbolism. Technical skill and study were the two requisites for successful endeavor in their line of work. Whatever secrets these builders recognized were purely technical and belonged to the trade with the exception possibly of means of recognition that they employed to make themselves known to one another. In order to identify the members by these signs of recognition the person designated to guard the Anglo-French lodges in England, could not be otherwise than a "Tailleur de pierre," or a stone-mason. The French term sounded like "Tyler de peer," to strange English ears, and soon became shortened to Tyler.
Meanwhile, the art of building using squared stone and mortar was introduced in England by Benedict Biscop, the Abbot of Canterbury. In 674 AD King Ecgfrith of Northumbria granted Benedict land for the purpose of building a monastery. Biscop brought in Freemasons from France in 674 AD to build St. Peters’s monastery at Monkwearmouth, in the Romanesque style. The King was so delighted at the success of St Peter's, that he gave Biscop more land in Jarrow and urged him to build a second monastery and Benedict erected the sister monsatery of St Paul at Jarrow, again employing Freemasons from France. From the 7th to the 10th centuries the Anglo-Saxons constructed many churches using mainly square-cut building stones called Ashlers.
The Norman conquest of 1066 brought with it a fresh interest in the building art. The Norman kings were great builders. They demolished the Anglo-Saxon churches and built the great Romanesque cathedrals in England. During these periods the travelling Freemasons established themselves in England.
The first reliable account of these traveling Freemasons is found in connection with the erection of Melrose Abbey Church, near Edinburg, in 1136. On a block of stone at one of the doors is an inscription attesting the fact that John Monroe was a General or Grand Master of all Mason work. Engraved on the walls over one of the doors is a shield carved in relief and displaying a pair of compasses. Also in Melrose Abbey churchyard among the inscribed stones, is one marked "Andrew Mein: Meayson in Newsteid, aged 63," and dated February, 1624.
The Steinmetzen in Germany: From the 9th to the 12th century, devout men from the British Isles, chiefly from Ireland, crossed over to the mainland and, penetrated into the depths of the German forests, carrying the doctrines of Christianity to the German tribes. Wherever they went, they cleared the forests and raised churches and dwellings for their priests. The monasteries they built afforded the means of acquiring skill in the manipulation of building materials. They may thus be looked upon as the earliest school of masonry and the cradle of architecture in Germany, furnishing large numbers of cunning artificers and experienced master builders. It is probable that in the 12th century, or thereabouts, the skilled masons of the convent builders left the employ of their masters, who were unable to provide them with further work, and amalgamated with the Steinmetzen.
By the 10th century Stonemasons' skills were in high demand in Medieval Europe, and in order to safeguard their skills, enforce the flow of trade to the select few, and to retain ownership of tools and the supply of materials, it is believed that they were organized in a manner something between a trade union, a cartel, and a secret society, and known as the Steinmetzen (Stonecutters). The first authentic charter of the Steinmetzen was in the 13th century.
Steinmetzen parallels: The Steinmetzen met in halls that they constructed (Lodges), and were bound together by strong ties of brotherhood, containing in their midst, master builders whose minds were stored with all the mathematical knowledge of those days.
They had three classes of members: apprentices, journeymen, and master masons. Apprentices were indentured to their masters as the price for their training; journeymen had a higher level of skill and could go on journeys to assist their masters; and master masons were considered freemen who could travel as they wished, to work on the projects of the patrons.
The Universal Fraternity of Stonemasons: In 1459, due to strife among the various Steinmetzen in Germany and Switzerland, a universal fraternity was instituted with four chief lodges, to which all disputes must be referred. This Universal Fraternity issued ordnances to all the Steinmetzen whose masters chose to join the fraternity. In 1563 the Ordnances were revised and printed in folio and described as The Brother Book of 1563, containing “The Ordinances and Articles of the Fraternity of Stonemasons renewed at the Chief Lodge at Strasburg on St. Michael's Day MDLXIII" but first published as the Secret Book (Geheimbuch) of the Stonemasons. This is one of the earliest references to a “Lodge” or to a book of constitutions.
A copy of this folio was distributed to every Lodge. The master who had charge of the book was made to swear that the Book was not copied or lent, and that the Ordinances would be read every year to the fellows in the lodge.
Fraternity of Stonemasons’ parallels: The Ordnances provide for the master to appoint “pallier”s (guardian or warden of the enclosure) to help rule the lodge. The Warden was to preserve the order, the privileges, the tools and appliances of the Lodge and to see that all instruments of precision (square, gauge, etc.,) were maintained in full accuracy. He was to act as general instructor to the fellows and apprentices and prepare, prove and pass their work for them; to reject spoilt work and to levy all fines for negligence or otherwise. He was to call the brethren to labour at the proper time, “without fear or favor” and to fine those who did not make their appearance.
On the completion of his apprenticeship the young workman was declared free of the craft and obtained rank as a Fellow-craft. This act was solemnly performed before the assembled Lodge and was accompanied by some formalities. He had to take a solemn obligation " on his truth and honour in lieu of oath”, under the penalty of being expelled from the craft, that he would be a true, loyal, and obedient mason;
that he would maintain the craft as far as possible; that he would not of his own initiative alter or change his distinctive mark ; that he would not disclose the greeting (Gruss) or grip (Schenck) to any non‑mason ; and that he would not commit any part of the ceremony to writing.
The methods of recognition were then imparted to him and the ceremony concluded with a jovial feast, which was partly at the master's expense, and partly at his own. At this feast the Ordinances were read out and the Master renewed his pledge accompanied by the drinking of a toast with a prescribed movement of hand and cup, accompanied by a fixed form of words. It is not known what the grip was. But we have the account of Herr Osterrieth, an architect, who had been a member of the stonemasons’ guild in Strassburg. Upon being admitted to Freemasonry at the end of the 18th century, Herr Osterrieth expressed his astonishment at recognizing the token of the Strasburg stonemasons in the entered apprentice grip.
Gould gives an indicative description of the ceremony of affiliating a journeyman joiner: “He was ushered into the assembly and placed before the president in an upright position, his heels joined, his feet at right angles, which was ensured by the square being placed between them. His posture was proved by the level, he was required to stand erect, elbows on his hips and hands spread out sideways so as to represent an equilateral triangle, of which his head was the apex.
He was denominated throughout “rough wood." He was then directed to listen to a lecture. The first part of this lecture treats of the origin of the joiner's art and includes remarks on architecture in general, couched in rude verse…..he underwent a rude symbolical ceremony called Hdnseln …that is, handling or manipulation. In the case of the joiners this consisted of being stretched on a bench, rather roughly planed and shaped with various tools, in fact treated as rough wood under the joiner's hands. The locksmiths turned a key round three times in the mouth of the candidate … After this ceremony the joiner was called in future “smooth wood " and, the proceedings being ended, was once more placed under the level”.
Gould also gives an account of examination of a travelling salute mason recounted by Steinbrenner:
“What was the name of the first mason?” – “Anton Hieronymus”, “And the working tool was invented by?” - “Walkan “.
The most interesting part of this catechism is the tradition contained in the following dialogue “Where was the worshipful craft of masons first instituted in Germany?” – “At the Cathedral of Magdeburg, under the Emperor Charles II, in the year 876." Charles II was the King of West Francia from 840–877 and the Holy Roman Emperor from 875–877. However, there is no historical evidence to show that there was any construction on the site of the Cathedral of Magdeburg prior to 937.
Records show that a meeting was rendered by the opened chest of the society which contained their documents, minute‑books, registers and treasury; that this chest was usually secured by three locks and keys, which keys were in possession of three different officials; that the presiding officer then knocked with some symbol of authority (usually a staff or hammer), to procure silence; that the periodical contributions of the members were then collected, complaints heard and strife adjusted; that the locksmiths, and therefore probably the stonemasons, closed their meetings by three formal inquiries, whether anything for the good of the craft or of the fraternity offered itself.
All ceremonies were operative and conducted in the form of a dialogue between the officials and there are no authenticated records of any speculative ceremony or secrets to be communicated.
The fraternity admitted honorary members, and so it is assumed that the stonemasons were in the habit of admitting into their fraternity the most learned men of the age such as Albertus Argentinus the designer of the Strasburg Cathedral, Albertus Magnus who planned the Cologne Cathedral (both of the 13th century), and Emperor, Frederick III (1440‑1492) who are all claimed by various works to have been masons.
It is interesting to note that two pillars stand within the Cathedral of Wurzburg, in Germany (built between 1040 and 1075), which at some period formed a part of the original porch. Their names, Jachin and Boaz, suggest a derivation from the celebrated pillars at the entrance of King Solomon's Temple, with which, however, their architectural form in no way corresponds. Their names merely prove that the masons were acquainted with that part of the Old Testament most interesting to them as architects, which in itself may have suggested the idea of constructing something unusual.
The British Craft Gilds: The word gild originated c.1230, from the Old English “gegyld” meaning " a tribute or payment” to join a protective or trade society. Originally Gilds were voluntary associations for religious, social, and commercial purposes. These associations, which attained their highest development among the English, during the Middle Ages, were of four kinds: religious, frith (peace), merchant, and craft gilds.
The oldest existing charter of a gild dates from the reign of King Cnut c. 985 AD (known more commonly as King Canute). From this we learn that a certain Orcy presented a gild-hall (gegyld-halle) to the gyldschipe of Abbotsbury in Dorset, and that the members were associated in almsgiving, care of the sick, burial of the dead, and in providing Masses for the souls of deceased members. The earliest gilds were formed for religious and social purposes and were voluntary in character. Subsequent enactments down to the time of King Athelstan (925-940) show that they soon developed into frith guilds or peace guilds, which were associations with a corporate responsibility for the good conduct of their members and their mutual liability.
With the building of towns based on trade, merchant guilds were formed and controlled the town government. From existing gild statutes of Berwick, Southampton, Leicester and Totnes we learn that each gild was presided over by an two alderman (literal meaning "elder man" – practically, a high ranking member elected to lead) assisted by two or four wardens who presided over the meetings and administered the funds. Merchant gilds enforced contracts among members and policed members’ behavior because medieval commerce operated according to the community responsibility system.
Ancient Guild Hall at Totnes
Seeing that the merchant guilds had become closely allied with the municipality, the craftsmen struggled to break down the trading monopoly of the merchant gilds and formed the craft gilds, organized along lines of particular trades. Not much is known about the craft gilds of masons, though they surely must have existed. The primary purpose of the craft guild was to establish a complete system of control over all who were associated in the craft.
Gild Parallels: The administration of craft gilds lay in the hands of wardens, bailiffs, or masters. The general membership was divided into the three grades of masters, journeymen or fellow crafts and apprentices. Any journeyman could become a master. The typical gild had a common chest for incidental upkeep and for the relief of the widows and orphans of deceased members; periodical meetings, with banquets; admitted members on an oath; administered fines; adopted ordinances for the regulation of its own activities; and punished members for improper conduct. They held prayers for the dead, provided old age and sick pensions, pensions for widows, and burial funds. . As we can see, the parallels are few compared with the previously mentioned craft associations.
As a result of their alliance with the church, many gilds, participated in pageants with mystery, morality and miracle plays. These plays were staged on wagons drawn in a "procession" from one exhibition point to another across the town. The various gilds divided up the plays among themselves, e.g. at Norwich, the mercers, drapers and haberdashers presented the creation of the world; the grocers, Paradise; and the smiths, the fight between David and Goliath. At Hereford, the glovers gave Adam and Eve; the carpenters, Noah's ship; the tailors, the three kings. It is possible that these mystery plays were the forerunners of the later drama of speculative Freemasonry, but there is no evidence to bear this out.
In the course of time gilds multiplied until they came to be used for every conceivable purpose, for good-fellowship, for drinking, for insuring a decent burial, for worship, for hunting, travel, art and for banking. In the time of Edward III (1312 – 1377) there were more than 40,000 religious, trade and crafts gilds listed in England. During the Protestant Reformation (1517 – 1648) all gilds were suppressed as superstitious foundations. The trade gilds survived as corporations or companies - one such was the Masons Company of London - but they were devoid of the power and influence they had possessed.
The Masons’ Company today is one of the smaller City Livery Companies with a membership of about 150 compared with the average of about 225 and some modern Livery Companies with upwards of 600 members.
The Company is governed by a Court of Assistants led by an annually elected Master and two Wardens. The executive administration is under the control of an appointed Clerk. Membership of the Livery is available to applicants, preferably connected with the construction industry or the City of London.
The main activities of the Company are directed towards furthering the craft of stonemasonry and the support of more general charities, and to this end the Company administers two registered charities. A Craft Fund, provides support for apprentices and trainees in the craft of stonemasonry. However, there is now no direct link between the Masons’ Company and Freemasonry
The Demise of Operative Freemasonry
Operative Masonry began to decline in the fifteenth century; in the following century it almost went out of existence.
The Hundred Years War in France (1337 to 1453), the Black Death (1348 to 1350), and the wars of Roses (1455 to 1485) resulted in a great waste of human life and the depopulation of villages. Arts and sciences were neglected and the people lost faith in the church culminating in the Reformation (1517 onwards) that dealt a death blow to Mediaeval architecture. All gilds were suppressed by Henry VIII, monastery corporations were dissolved, Cathedrals were no longer erected, and existing ones demolished. All these circumstances impoverished the people so that architecture rapidly declined.
The great London fire (1666) caused massive destruction and resulted in untold misery and suffering. In the rebuilding of London (for 50 years after the fire) the influx of foreign workmen was so great that the existing gilds of operative Masons were demoralized and soon commenced to disintegrate. Surviving lodges met but occasionally and with extreme difficulty. Darrah notes, “In 1646, when Elias Ashmole was initiated, there were but seven present to participate in the ceremonies”.
The last account we have of the operative guilds of the Middle Ages is in connection with the erection of St. Paul's cathedral in London, in the 17th Century, under Sir Christopher Wren. Just how many of these gilds were in existence at this time or to what extent their influence reached is not known. Whatever record may have been kept was probably destroyed. It is, therefore, impossible to arrive at any definite conclusion as to what may have been the status of these operative societies. Darrah asserts that it is beyond doubt that “there existed among them nothing in the way of a central organization. Each guild was a trades union complete in itself, establishing its own rules, admitting whom it pleased, and exercising its functions independent of all other similar societies”.
The gild system also became a target of much criticism as the gilds were believed to oppose free trade and hinder technological innovation, technology transfer and business development. According to several accounts of this time, gilds became increasingly involved in simple territorial struggles against each other and against free practitioners of their arts.
Following the great London fire, the rebuilding of St. Paul's cathedral and other civil and religious edifices gave some new life to operative Masonry, but it was not sufficient to revive these old societies and restore them to their former glory. At the beginning of the 18th Century there was no general organization of Masonry. Ongoing building caused workmen to come together, form a temporary lodge, complete the work, and disband.